Just a few ideas of some things I'd like to see change in current British wiring practice. All very much my personal opinion, of course. In no particular order:

1. Let's specify dedicated branches for washers, dryers, and dishwashers. With a typical 3kW loading for each, I feel that piling them all onto ring circuits (often all on one!) is not the best approach. The regs. have always specified a dedicated 15A branch for a 3kW water heater. People often expect to be able to use washers, dryers, etc. simultaneously these days, so it's time they followed suit.

2. Let's abandon the ring circuit altogether. Any reasons given for its adoption in the late 1940s are no longer valid, if indeed they ever were, due to changing patterns of usage.

With the heavy stuff moved onto dedicated branches, wiring several radial circuits of 20A for general-purpose outlets would be fine. It would also make for easier servicing than in homes where receptacles are all on one or two circuits. And it would eliminate the possibility of overloaded cables due to an open ring (whether by fault or incompetent DIY).

3. We should abandon the "no sockets in the bathroom" stance. Let's allow a suitably placed receptacle, protected by a GFI of 30mA or less.

People WANT to use blow-dryers etc. in there, and will find a way to do so.
They can't run them on the low-VA isolated shaver socket, so they'll run an extension cord to a hall or bedroom, which may well have no GFI protection whatsoever. Better to provide a suitably protected outlet in the first place.

4. We should introduce U.S.-style clamps for terminating our equivalent of Romex at fixture boxes. The current technique of using a conduit knock-out just fitted with a rubber grommet doesn't provide enough protection against straining the internal connections.

5. The color code should be straightened out (or to be more precise, it should never have been messed up in 1970). We know what to expect of course, but it's quite illogical for blue in a fixed cable to be a phase and blue in a flexible cord to be neutral, for example. (Er, or was this system wired prior to 1970, in which case blue in a cord is hot after all!).

6. We really should use deeper boxes in many places. The prevalence of brick walls here is a big factor, but the common 1/2-inch for a switch and 1-inch for sockets just doesn't leave room for extra cables to be added later. (And frankly, is barely adequate for the originals.) I'd like to see 1 and 1-1/2 inch minimum respectively (or 25 and 38 mm as they insist on calling them now).

8. While we're on that subject, can we please tell the dictatorial EU bureaucrats to take a running jump and change all the metric specifications back to units that 99% of Brits are comfortable with.

That's probably enough for now. Any comments?

From my perspective here in the States it would make sense if you had Immersion Detection Protection devices for your hair dryers like we have. This would alleviate the dangers inherent in plugging them into sockets in other rooms..'tho your suggestion of 30mA trip levels sounds like an electrocution waiting to happen.
'Ring circuits' seem like a ripe candidate for being phased out. With all the interest and fears about stray electromagnetic fields (which ring circuits produce when one conductor opens and gets back fed from the other end) I would think that there would be an outcry against ring circuits..at leats for the ones using plastic covered wiring..Mineral Insulated cable would shield the magnetic fields, I would think.
Here, we require a dedicated circuit if an appliance takes up 50% or more of the circuit ampacity..so your idea of dedicated circuits seems appropriate.
I'm wondering 'tho about all the old masonry buildings which would look pretty cobled up if there were stipulations for lots of separate radial circuits..is that workable?

Well, I certainly concede that a 30mA GFI outlet at 240V to ground could still pose quite an electrocution risk. I picked on 30mA because that's the lowest GFI breaker that's easily obtainable in a wide range here; in fact many houses in rural areas now have a whole-house GFI of 30mA.

But 10mA types up to at least 20A are available, and would undoubtedly be a better choice. And whatever GFI is used, it would at least be better than extension cord hair-dryers run from a non-GFI outlet.

I never came across one of the new blow-dryers while I was out there (it's nearly 6 yrs. since I came back). How exactly do the "immersion detectors" work?

If you applied the 50% rule PER APPLIANCE, then our washers and dryers would still pass, as the ring is a 30A circuit, giving 7200W maximum. But with two 3kW appliances running simultaneously that only leaves 1200W, and in too many homes that 30A ring is also feeding all the kitchen sockets where kettles, toasters, etc. are likely to be in use. And in remodeled kitchens, I have seen washer, dryer, and dishwasher all on the same ring.

You'll see that in the IEE Regs. a ring can feed up to 100 sq. meters (originally 1000 sq. ft.) of floor area. In many older houses there's only one 30A ring for all sockets (except the one sometimes fitted to the cooker panel).

Even where two rings are provided, as is common now, in a 2-story house they are often wired one for each floor, which to my mind is not the way to get a reasonable distribution of load.

Some guides recognize the problem, but then go on to suggest that with the increased load in a modern home it may be a good idea to install a separate ring for the kitchen-area outlets. That seems to me to be missing the point that it's the kitchen area which is carrying the bulk of the load and needs to be divided onto separate circuits.

I hadn't thought about increased EM fields from a broken ring conductor, but I think the possibility of overheated wiring should be of greater concern.

There was a lot of fuss about HV lines a few years ago, but the protests seem to be directed toward cell-phone towers these days (sometimes by people who spend all day on their own cell-phone and who have obviously never heard of the inverse-square law!).

The prevalance of brick and masonry walls does make cabling awkward at times. Where a timber floor is used (e.g. many pre-WWII homes) the ring cables are generally run in the crawl space and brought up to each socket behind the skirting-board (baseboard) and set into the wall. (In earlier times it was actually very common to just screw surface boxes to the board and take the cables straight down trough the floorboards.)

Where the floor is solid concrete, the ring has to be run in the attic and cables dropped down the walls to each outlet, or channeled horizontally along the wall. With two cables to each outlet, it's a lot of work anyway, so I'm not sure that changing to radial circuits would make it any harder in that respect.

Paul,
Is there anything similar to our ROP's here??
http://www.tlc-direct.co.uk/Book/Contents.htm

To be honest, I'm not sure how the various professional bodies and IEE committees get things changed. It's something I've never really looked into that closely. I'll have a look at the IEE website later.

Regarding the circuit arrangements for radial branches, there's nothing to stop anyone installing dedicated branches for anything, and I've often changed a washer/dryer etc. outlet during other work. In some cases it can be done quite easily from the attic or crawl space without having to tear up walls.

The rules about what outlets are permitted on radials have changed quite a bit over the years, but the current specs. are here:

www.tlc-direct.co.uk/Book/6.3.3.htm

Paul, from what I have gathered, the immersion detectors respond to conductive liquids modifying the impedance between a sensor probe and an electrode. It will trip the H & N open when the appliance is dropped in water. Its supposed to limit leakage to 6 mA..just like a gfci, but its not to be relied upon to prevent a momentary tingle. But it still sounds safer than the 30mA device that you mentioned.
As for the controversy about stray EMF from power systems, our IEEE published findings that pretty much aleviate fears of the power line and building wiring EMF having any deleterious effect on humans..as you probably are aware (you appear to be a really smart guy!). The energy of power wiring is negligible compared to the normal thermal energy in the human body. But, electromagnetic interference can still be a problem and so I would not be too keen about an open in a ring circuit. You can check Mike Holt's web site for further elaboration.

Sparky, if you are reading this I have a question for you: where can I download a copy of the latest ROP's and ROC's?

Interesting on the immersion detection. Does it have a breaker fitted at the plug or in the cord, or does it just short the line and rely on the house breaker to open the circuit?

I don't remember hearing about the American IEEE's conclusion on EM fields, although I recall several groups here recommending that there is no need for further action as "no direct link has been proven," or words to that effect.
(Probably worded to avoid being torn apart by lawyers if any link should be found in the future; you can't publicly announce that grass is green these days without a disclaimer!)

Some domestic lighting circuits here were wired with single cables taking different routes, so stronger fields are likely there. As someone who works with sensitive audio and RF equipment, I'd certainly agree that anything which helps keep EM interference to a minimum is welcome.

By the way, this is another reason I don't like rings. The ground wire is run as a ring as well, which can give rise to some awkward loop problems.

Yeah, we have our share of old "knob and tube" wiring that is single conductor routed, and is likely to be a source of EMI--especially if dimmer switches or paddle fan speed controls are used. The IEEE has a panel that oversees the health concerns of EM fields, but I don't recall the title of the volume..it has been about 5 years since I last looked at it in a university library.
By the way, I looked over some of your earlier entries re. UK wiring and I realize NOW why you are concerned about the wiring overheating..I never realized before that the wire is undersized..that it needs both ends of the ring to safely handle the current load. Its probably a good thing that your buildings are made of masonry or stone! One redeeming fact 'tho is that the receptacles don't necessitate an actual break in the wiring..decreasing the likelihood of a faulty connection or open circuit from one end of the ring.
My understanding is that the immersion detectors are part of the plug..a big ole clunky plug..with a reset button like a gfci. The receptacles in bathrooms are also gfci protected..so its a race to see which one trips out first. I have seen somewhere..I think it was in a '99 code handbook..that manufacturers have a choice as to whether to use an actual immersion detector, or a gfci, or..this isn't a sharp memory..an appliance leakage current interrupter. Perhaps that choice has been recinded by now..you will have to dig for info about it from someone who is really on top of the subject..I'm just slightly familiar with it. I'll leep my eyes peeled next time I go to the store and see if there are any IDCI's attached to the plugs of cords of blow dryers, curling irons, foot massage units, etc., and I'll let you know what I find. Bye for now.
P.S. I appreciate your perspective on this site. I only wish I had access to your info 10 years ago..before my trips to England..I could have learned a lot more on my trips! I am a bit amazed by your familiarity with our wiring methods and electrical code. What's-a-mattah, don't you have a life?

[This message has been edited by Elzappr (edited 12-31-2001).]

Yes, the ring is fused at 30A (or 32A with the latest C/Bs) and the cable is rated at only two-thirds or so of that (depending upon derating factors for insulation etc.).

Originally rings were wired with 7/.029 cable, which works out as 0.0045 sq. in. CSA. The change to metric 2.5 sq. mm reduced the CSA to 0.0039 sq. in. I make that just fractionally larger than your #14.

The cable can be looped into a box and stripped to go into the outlet terminals without breaking into the conductors, but in practice it's not all that common to see it done that way.

As for my interest in American wiring, I guess it's just a combination of technical curiosity and a love of the U.S.A. in general. I first read a few U.S. electronics journals when I was young, and of course there were odd references to 120V, a "peculiar" color code, and those "funny-looking plugs."

First time I ever visited the U.S. I found a bookstore and bought a couple of wiring books. Great stuff and full of useful information even though I'd picked up some other odds and ends before then.
I've learned a lot more history and background on here as well, of course.

I guess the same "accusation" could be thrown at you: After all, how many American tourists go home with a copy of the IEE Wiring Regulations?

Oh yeah: About 3 years ago I found a U.S. "Teach Yourself Wiring" type book in a public library in the Republic of Ireland. I have no idea why they had it on the shelves, as they follow U.K. practice. I only hope it did't confuse anyone too much!



[This message has been edited by pauluk (edited 12-31-2001).]

Hi Paul..Happy New Year!
Yup..I'm a bit too technically curious..but I only did it for my apprentice students!
Hey, I took a look at the hair dryers and hydro-massagers..and they have ALCI's on their cord ends..not "immersion detectors"..but I don't know how the ALCI's work, perhaps they are immersion detectors in disguise. Instructions say that you have to unplug the unit before resetting the ALCI. 'Don't know if you HAVE TO or if its just a recommendation.
So, what part of the States are you interested in?

ALCI? Is that the same thing as an AFCI?
If not, then that's another new one on me!

I still have an old late 1940s/early 1950s hair dryer here. It's not used as such anymore, but it's just right for warming or cooling components for fault-finding. (You can tell it must be old: It actually has "Made in England" on the label! ) It would probably violate numerous consumer safety laws if sold today; you can even replace the motor brushes without taking the covers off.

On a similar subject, I have an old 1930s household handbook which explains how to determine the polarity of a d.c. supply by dipping the wires into a glass of water and vinegar. Can't you just imagine the reaction of the publisher's lawyers if they tried something like that today?!

I haven't been to every part of the States, but I've traveled from NYC right across the Mid-West as far as central Nebraska.

I also toured around the South back in 1992/3 taking in FL, GA, AL, NC & SC. I loved it down there, especially up in the Appalachians.

Yep, I could quite easily get myself a big ol' trailer and become an English redneck if only the INS would renew my green card!

The ALCI is our previously discussed appliance leakage current interrupter..not to be confused with an AFCI.
I had no idea that they made hair dryers back in the 40's! I was born in '47 so I guess I expect all modern conveniences to have been introduced beginning with the late '50's.
Yeah, the lawyers would have a field day about testing polarity in vinegar water. Reminds me of an electrician friend that cooked his lunchtime hotdogs by sticking two wires in opposite ends and poking the other end of the wires into an outlet! 'Course, he was from Austria..maybe electricians are a bit different there! Never did see any of his dogs explode (from too much salt), but I kept my distance just in case.
I saw your entry about hitting the road soon..we'll miss you..but I'm sure that when you reconnect you'll have lots of fresh content to share. If you ever make it back to the States, you have to get out West! I live in Oregon..lots of pretty country all around. Now that the Russians are making the price of oil drop, we can afford to travel a little more.
So any hint to where you are off to?

Ah, it just hadn't registered in my mind what ALCI stood for.

I wasn't born until 1966, but you may have noticed from my other posts that I'm very interested in the development and history of electrics/electronics. I've found that a lot of people don't realize just how long some things have been around.

Tell them that the first trans-Atlantic TV broadcast by satellite was 1962 or that the first commercial microwave oven was marketed in 1949 and they sometimes look in disbelief.

I saw a documentary about Oregon some years ago, and just recently watched an early 1960s movie filmed on location in Ore. ("Ring of Fire," David Jansen as a sheriff for a change!). It certainly looks pretty country up there.

I'm planning on looking for a place over in France. Property's much better value there. Have you ever been there?

By the way, the oil prices have lowered the price of gas ("petrol") here compared to a year or so ago, but it still works out over $4 per U.S. gal.

France? No, haven't been interested in going there..only lasted one day in a university French class. Professor was a little too effeminate for my taste..I wanted to learn French to seduce WOMEN!
Anyway, I about starved in the UK. I figured that if I went to the French countryside I would not only starve, but have the language barrier to deal with too.
So, will you be able to work down there?
My wife looks at those "charming" country cottages, from the western parts of France, and is thinking that the price is right too! I suspect that some day, when the economy around here picks up, we'll have to make it over there. I've turned vegetarian a few months ago and so I won't have to worry
about our not being able to find a place to get a meal. No one caters to vegetarians anyway, so we'll have to forage our way through the country!

Bien, je parle un peu de francais, Monsieur.

I'm certainly not fluent in French, but I can speak enough to deal with most everyday situations like shopping, asking directions, etc.

I'll concentrate on my technical writing work mostly, which will still be with British & American publishers, so no problem. I might pick up a little wiring work locally once I get settled and known in the area, particularly with any other Brits who are renovating and would feel more comfortable dealing with someone who is fluent in English.

Quite a few Brits live over there now in certain regions, usually quoting similar reasons like cheaper property & lower property taxes, getting out of the rat-race into a more relaxed pace of life, and so on.

I understand that a number of Dutch and Germans are also buying in the same regions for the cheaper property. I've yet to meet any Dutchman who doesn't speak English fairly well, and most Germans seem to speak at least basic English as it's taught as the "de facto" second language in that part of Europe. (Ask Texas Ranger -- He's from neighboring Austria.)

Although taxes are high in France if you have a large income, for those on more modest pay there are a lot of savings, e.g. property taxes and annual vehicle registration are quite a lot cheaper. And although still expensive by American standards, food & gasoline are slightly cheaper than here. The weather's a little better as well, of course!

I've just been looking at a rural house in Normandy: 2 BR, 1 bath, habitable with all services but in need of some work, in 3/4 acre of land for 170,000 francs. That's about £16,000 Sterling or U.S. $25,000. You can't even buy a small empty lot in southern England for that!

Whoa! Texas Ranger is from Austria? Hope he didn't see that crack about the hot dog cooking Austrian (above)!
I can't believe that home price..there's got to be a catch.
Sounds like an adventure. I envy your freedom and wherewithal. Hope all works out well. Keep in touch when you can.

Hehe... Are you reading this Tex?

I guess we've all got our quirks. Do you know the large wirewound resistors that were very common as droppers in TVsyears ago? Usually about an inch diameter with green coating on the ceramic. I know of bench techs. who'd wire one to a suitable supply and dip it in their mug to keep their tea or coffee warm!

I suppose the "catch" with French property is that fees and taxes on purchase are higher than here - Up to 10% of the price - but it's still good value and you'll break even after a few years on the savings on annual property tax.

Some of the very cheap places need a lot (and I do mean a LOT) of work, but they're still far batter value England. Anyone selling an average 2-BR semi (one half of what you'd call a duplex) anywhere near London could easily buy someplace really nice in rural France.

VAT (sales tax) runs 19.6% on most things in France, although it's 17.5% here so there's not that much difference. They also have 5.5% VAT on food (tax free here), but it's still a little cheaper than Britain, as are quite a few other goods. It's probably down to the transport costs: Gasoline is about 10 to 15% cheaper in France, but diesel is not much more than half what it costs here.

Getting back on topic (sorry everyone!), some French wiring leaves a little to be desired, but hey, I know someone who can take care of that!

Yeah, I am from Austria, as said in a famous song here. The story about that electrician sounds like some stuff i heard from the days after WW II when most people assembled their appliances with parts from the dumpster, like a water heater made of wood and razor blades. just imagine to stick that thing into a metal pot!
We sure have some strange guys here ( some of the stories are in my thread "Austrian systems), but I never heard something like that. I think those guys can be found everywhere, but your story would be very likely to come from Spain or somewhere around. they have some REALLY strange work.
If that happened In the US he maybe was in the common belief of some DIY-guys "It's only 120V"
It also reminds me to the thread in the violations section "bare feet, a metal ladder and a drill motor".

Oh boy... Spain! Some of the wiring there has to be seen to be believed!

Howdy Tex, if its any consolation, the guy I was referring to was actually born in Czechoslovakia, and move to Vienna when he was a kid.
Tell us about the wiring in Spain! Perhaps time for a new thread?

That the guy was born in czechoslovakia may have affected his mentality, but his education must have been in Austria, so it doesn't change much. As i said, we have some strange guys here. like the one who installed a fully grounded system in our appartment with Schuko receptacles everywhere and then "forgot" the ground between main fuse in staircase and our breaker panel 25 years ago.
I found out about that yesterday...
That guy was licensed!

About spanish wiring: I have only been there once on holidays and can just remember loose hot wires dangling around like grapevines, open receptacles and stuff like that. maybe they also had 110 V back then. (At least in one country my father tried to hook up a hairdryer to a standard outlet and wondered why it ran so slow-110V)

The wildest extension cord practice I ever saw was in fact in the US (Brooklyn, NYC). It's nice to have a 15A/120V duplex receptacle extended to 12 outlets using various taps, extension cords and strips.

That pretty much sums up my experience of Spanish wiring as well. They often seem to have the attitude "It works, so what's the fuss?"

You see missing cover plates, wires just twisted and shoved into a box (not even taped!), grounding-type receptacles with no ground on them, and so on.

I once saw a bathroom light switch with exposed live terminals (220V to ground) right by the shower. And this wasn't some old ramshackle place but a fairly fancy modern hotel in a major tourist area!

Tex,
I'm not sure if there might still be one or two remote parts of Spain still on the lower voltage, although I think all the built-up areas are 220/380 now.

There may have been places with a nominal 110V supply, but I think in many areas the lower voltage was actually nominally 127V, because it was derived from a 3-phase network with a line-to-line potential of 220V.

Did they ever use 110/220 1-ph 3-wire in Spain? I'm not sure. I have references that indicate that NEMA (U.S. type) 2-prong outlets were used on 110-127V at one time.

What I was thinking of was Mallorca some 15 years ago.
At www.kropla.com Spain is now listed to have 230V/50Hz, Schuko plugs. I don't have any further informations.

Hi, Paul.
Hate to show off my ignorance here (especially since I have so much to show...) Would you please explain what a "Ring Circuit" is to me? If I were to make a wild guess, I would think it was a circuit which receives its power source from more than one place...

Thanks for any info you (or anyone else) can give me.

Mike (mamills)

Mike,

The ring circuit consists of cables run from the panel to each receptacle in turn, then back to the panel to complete the ring. It's been the most common sysem for feeding recepts. in British homes for many years (lights are on separate circuits here).

Forgive me if I don't go into a long explanation again, but allow me to refer you to the treads "Hello from U.K" and "Ring circuits U.K. style" in this section where we had quite a discussion about rings.

Texas,

The hotel I mentioned above was actually in Majorca -- Magalluf to be exact.

The new EU-wide 230V standard seems to be more political than anything else at the moment. The U.K. is now officially 230V, even though nothing has happened to our 240V supplies. All they've done is juggle with the permitted tolerances so that they can call it 230 volts! I have no up-to-date information on Spain, but I wouldn't mind betting that they've done something similar and that their supplies are still really 220V.

Considering Spain's often poorly regulated supply and undersized cables where outlet voltage can easily be down to 190V on heavy load, it probably doesn't make much difference anyway!

Here in Austria we actually have 230V instead of 220. I measured between 228 and 234.
In Italy it is pretty much the same with the voltage drop. They have very long 230V supply lines (sometimes several kilometres), so some houses only get as low as 190V.
Maybe some words about italian wiring.
Their work looks more like American than ours, as their boxes are not round, but rectangular and about the same size as American ones. They'll either take a single or triple receptacle or up to 3 switches. Wirenuts are the only common connectors (I only saw one color-yellow-but don't know if it has anything to do with the size).Stranded wire is very common there, they use it mostly in pvc flex conduit.Some receptacles will either take a Schuko plug or an Italian one, old plugs looked very much like Euro plugs. Common service in rural areas is only 20A/230V single phase for a whole house. old work was usually done with very thin zip cord with big gaps between the conductors, just nailed to the wall (They drove the nails into the gap between the conductors).

Interesting about Italian wiring. I've never been to Italy, so I had no idea what techniques they used. All I knew was the old-style Italian outlets with three round pins in line, ground on the center and reversible. Didn't they have ones with a slightly wider pin spacing for 16A and a the smaller version for 10A?

Single-phase 20A service must be very limiting. I thought the 3-ph at 15A per phase in some French homes was bad, but a max. total load of under 5kW must take some beating. I guess gas ranges must be popular in Italy.

Assuming that some houses have electric heating, do they have the heating cut-off contactors found in some French homes?

By the way, how are you getting used to your new currency? I'll have to adapt to to the Euro when I head for France shortly.

Texas,

Just thought I'd jump in here with a comment.
I recently did work for an Italian couple that lived in the US and worked in Italy for some months out of the year. I didn't ask details, but was curious how they could do that. (?) But anyway, they were telling me that where they were from the only wiring method used or allowed was a conduit system.

When wiring had to be installed in their existing buildings they first had to channel out a path for the conduit which would then get covered over with concrete or stucco. They were amazed to see the wiring inside of their US apartment ceiling and walls that was seemingly without protection.

Bill

The examples I'm talking of were in a dserted village in the Toscana, the wiring was probably very old. New work seems to use stranded wire in conduit. With the limitations, I guess it may be better in cities, I only know wiring in very rural areas. 10 years ago they used oil lamps and propane gas lighting there, some people still do.
They simply have both types of plugs, they're sold everywhere. The ones for 16A have also slightly thicker prongs, everything else looks the same.
The Euro works, but it's difficult. Some machines (like the public xerox machine I wanted to use today still only take our old Schilling coins, and some things get (illegally) slightly more expensive due to the changes. (They just round up the prices to a nice Euro sum)
Yes, that's what work is usually done around here. We have mostly plastered brick walls, so wiring dangling around in hollow spaces is quite uncommon (even in plaster-and-lath ceilings we usually use conduit (Almost only PVC flex conduit) Here in Austria we also use Romex in plaster, but conduit is the better choice for adding wires afterwards. On my opinion it is sometimes scaring what you see in America (especially that nice variety of adaptors and taps they sell at Home Depot, or homemade extensions like "how do I make one cord with more recptacles out of 2". Tht happens everywhere but I'm sometimes tempted to think that some Americans may pay less attention towards electricity due to the lower voltage.
I don't want to offend anyone, there are many people there who think a lot about safety, it was just scary to travel around there and see stuff like that.

I guess everywhere has its points that seem strange to outsiders. Just ask most people here what a 4-way stop is, and you'll get all sorts of blank looks!

We have nothing like the grounding adapters sold in America -- the ones to convert an old 2-prong outlet to a grounding type with a lug that fixes under the cover-plate screw. I wonder how many people use them without checking whether the box is properly grounded in the first place?

That sort of thing comes as a surprise to many Brits, but then Americans might also raise a few eyebrows at our unprotected service entrance cables and whole houses with only four branch circuits.

The same rounding-up of prices happened here in 1971 when Britain changed from the old LSD (pounds, shillings & pence) to decimal currency. It was the start of the massive inflation of the 1970s.

Bill,

Was that couple's divided year in the U.S and Italy some sort of immigration work-around? I could quite easily live in America for 6 months a year on a visitor's visa with no questions asked, so long as I wasn't working there.



[This message has been edited by pauluk (edited 01-11-2002).]

Paul,

Apparently the Husband made enough money over in Italy working only part of the year. He did not work for the months He was in the US. The wife may have stayed here (US) year-round. She may have worked too which would make more sense of things.

Bill